We will not be defeated in this 2000-year-old war, archaeology proves Tamil is cradle and pinnacle of Indian civilisation: Stalin

The Chief Minister, describing the Tamil Vs Sanskrit North as a 2000-year-old war, made it clear that the DMK government was making every effort to keep aloft Tamil antiquity and pride.

Chief Minister and DMK president M.K. Stalin on Sunday reaffirmed that the Tamil region was both the birthplace and the height of Indian civilisation, stating that archaeological findings clearly support this claim. He said the Porunai Museum, the second museum established by his government in Tirunelveli, was created to scientifically affirm the antiquity of Tamil civilisation.

Referring to what he described as a 2,000-year-old Tamil–Sanskrit conflict, Stalin said the DMK government remains committed to preserving Tamil history and pride.

“Our culture is unique and progressive. The Tamil land was the cradle and the pinnacle of civilisation in the Indian subcontinent. We have literary proof, and through archaeological excavations we are now scientifically validating these claims. That is why sites like Porunai and Keezhadi are so important,” he said while addressing a government event in Palayamkottai, a day after inaugurating the museum.

He accused the BJP-led Union government of obstructing Tamil Nadu’s archaeological efforts, claiming it seeks to suppress evidence that supports Tamil antiquity. “They block excavations and refuse to publish findings that prove our history. Our struggle is against those who harbour hostility toward the Tamil language and people. Those searching for the mythical Saraswati civilisation refuse to acknowledge our discoveries,” he said, adding that the fight to protect Tamil history cannot be abandoned.

Stalin also invited Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman to visit the Porunai Museum and see the evidence firsthand.

He said the Porunai Museum and the Keezhadi museum near Madurai aim to bring Tamil history and heritage closer to the public. In a post on X, he added that understanding history enables people to shape the future, describing Porunai as a lasting symbol of Tamil antiquity and a global heritage site for Tamils.

Spread across 13 acres and built at a cost of ₹62 crore, the Porunai Museum houses artefacts from Sivagalai—considered the world’s oldest Iron Age site, predating Anatolia—as well as findings from Athichanallur in Tirunelveli. The museum is named after Porunai, the ancient name of the Thamirabarani river, long regarded as a cradle of civilisation. Archaeology, he said, has become central to Tamil pride.

The museum displays Iron Age tools from Sivagalai that push back the timeline of iron smelting by over a thousand years, along with skulls, burial urns, and pots inscribed in ancient Tamil (Tamizhi) script, believed to predate Ashokan Brahmi. Artefacts from Korkai, the historic port city of the Pandya kingdom, are also exhibited.

For the DMK and Tamil scholars, the Sivagalai findings represent a major shift in understanding Tamil antiquity, challenging the conventional Iron Age timeline of 1800 BCE based on discoveries in Uttar Pradesh.

Earlier this year, while releasing the Sivagalai excavation report supported by carbon dating, Stalin declared that iron production began in Tamil Nadu over 5,300 years ago. “I announce to the world that iron smelting technology originated in Tamil land. We are scientifically proving our history to those who dismissed our literature as non-evidence,” he said.

SO: Cultured - Southampton’s history is hidden in plain sight

I’m a local neurodivergent artist and arts facilitator working with trusts, charities and councils across the city. In May, I founded Neurodivergent Arts Community Interest Company to champion neurodivergent creativity as a catalyst for wellbeing, connection and cultural change.

My work has shown me how creativity can help people reconnect – with themselves, with others and with their sense of place. So, when the opportunity came up to be a community curator for next February’s City Reflections: Illuminating Southampton’s Stories, it felt like the perfect fit. The role is about helping the neurodivergent community see themselves reflected in the city’s story – recognising that our creativity and perspectives are part of what makes Southampton unique.

I bring over 20 years’ experience working with both neurodivergent and neurotypical communities, along with wisdom and a deep understanding of the barriers the neurodivergent community can face when engaging with mainstream education, employment and the arts, culture and heritage sector. I also bring lived experience, having navigated and overcome many of these barriers myself.

My City Reflections topic is neurodivergent people/city maps and city wall, and the projection location is The Castle Vaults. My group approached the project by taking a guided walk through the city walls and vaults, which helped us connect physically with the places we’d later research.

Tracing our fingers over the old graffiti, imagining the sounds, smells and atmosphere gave us a real sense of history. That experience became a springboard when we entered the archives, where we were supported by the wonderful Jo Smith and Jo Bailey, who had already prepared collections for us to see. Their knowledge is vast and their passion palpable.

We’re also very grateful to Dan Matthews and Maria Newbury from the Maritime Archives, and to Richard Henry from Archaeology, who supported us throughout the process and helped us retrieve everything we needed to visually and orally tell our story.

So much of Southampton’s history is hidden in plain sight and tucked away within its archives. I don’t think many people realise how much of the city’s history they walk past every day. We rarely slow down for long enough to notice that we’re standing beside an ancient wall, or that an empty space marks where a building once stood before the Blitz. Even the cobbles beneath our feet tell stories, like those along Western Esplanade, where the stones are laid as public art to show where the sea line once reached.

For many, the archives themselves are also a hidden treasure. People might imagine they’re only for researchers, but they’re open to everyone. You can walk in and, within minutes, find yourself face-to-face with history – artefacts, maps and stories that bring the city to life.

That’s why it’s so important to find new ways of sharing and re-imagining these treasures. When people can see, touch, and experience this history for themselves, it reconnects them with Southampton’s rich and diverse tapestry and helps ensure that access truly is for all.

Our vibrant City Reflections installation will reflect the richness of Southampton’s people and places. We hope it will inspire visitors to get to know their city in a new way and to visit the archives themselves, or rediscover places like the vaults, the old city walls, Tudor House, or SeaCity Museum. It’s amazing how often we take a guided tour when we’re on holiday yet rarely explore the city we call home.

The biggest surprise for me when researching for this project was how much more interested in history I’ve become. My relationship with the city has changed too. I often find busy places, loud noises and crowds overwhelming, so I’d walk through Southampton quickly to get to where I needed to be. This project has helped me connect with the city in a new way, finding sanctuary in hidden places where I can slow down, breathe and take it all in.

What has stayed with me is the realisation of just how diverse Southampton has always been. A gateway city, a place of flow, ideas, people, food and customs endlessly arriving, weaving together into a rich cultural tapestry. To co-create a light installation that honours that diversity and carries the voices of our community forward has been not just work, but a privilege - a reminder that heritage is not a static past but a living, breathing conversation.

City Reflections: Illuminating Southampton’s Stories is a physical projection trail that will take place from 6pm to 8pm on Wednesday 18th to Saturday 21st February 2026.

The Earliest Known Plague Wasn’t Spread by Rats, DNA Study Reveals

For millennia, a prehistoric plague swept across Eurasia with alarming speed. Scientists have detected its presence in human remains found far apart, long before the Black Death made the disease infamous. What confused researchers was how the plague spread so widely without fleas, which later played a key role in medieval outbreaks.

New research may finally explain this puzzle. A study published in Cell and reported by ScienceAlert suggests that the earliest known carrier of plague was a domesticated sheep. This provides the first solid evidence that Bronze Age plague spread through animals traveling with humans. Researchers identified DNA from Yersinia pestis, the plague-causing bacterium, in a 4,000-year-old sheep tooth uncovered at Arkaim in present-day southern Russia. The strain belongs to the Late Neolithic–Bronze Age lineage, an early form of plague incapable of infecting fleas, leaving scientists long unsure how it moved across vast regions.

The finding came from a broader project examining how livestock migrated with people from the Fertile Crescent into Eurasia. The team analyzed ancient DNA from cattle, goats, and sheep—material that is often degraded and contaminated.

“When we test livestock DNA in ancient samples, we get a complex genetic mix of contamination,” said Taylor Hermes, an archaeologist at the University of Arkansas and the study’s lead author. “That makes it hard to isolate animal DNA, but it also allows us to detect pathogens that may have infected both herds and their handlers.”

That approach paid off with the Arkaim sheep. The plague DNA matched strains previously identified in human remains found thousands of miles apart, directly linking animal movement to human infection during this era.

“It had to be more than just people moving,” Hermes said. “This sheep gave us the breakthrough.”

Researchers now believe the disease spread through interactions between humans, livestock, and an unknown natural reservoir, likely rodents native to the Eurasian steppe. As sheep grazed across wide grasslands, they may have encountered infected wildlife and transmitted the bacterium within herds and to people—or possibly the other way around.

Ancient animal diseases are rarely preserved. Livestock were not carefully buried, and many remains come from cooked food, which destroys DNA. This makes the discovery especially unusual.

While a single genome does not answer every question, this one ancient sheep significantly narrows the mystery, shedding new light on how one of humanity’s earliest pandemics may have traveled alongside the animals people relied on most.

Roman Handprints, Preserved Textiles and Possible DNA Found in Rare Gypsum Burial in England

Archaeologists in England have revealed remarkable details about personal Roman burial customs after reanalyzing a rare stone sarcophagus filled with gypsum that was found in York. Nearly 2,000 years old, the burial has preserved clear impressions of textiles, possible hand and finger marks made in soft gypsum, and material that may still hold traces of DNA—providing rare insight into Roman funerary treatment of the dead.

The research forms part of the Seeing the Dead project, which examines Roman burial practices and physical remains. The sarcophagus, recorded as YORYM: 2010.1219 and curated by York Museums Trust, was originally discovered in 1877 during construction of York Railway Station. Although it has been known to researchers for generations and occasionally displayed publicly, it had never been fully excavated using modern scientific methods until this recent study.

A rare form of Roman burial
The burial stands out because of how the body was laid to rest. Once placed inside the stone coffin, liquid or semi-liquid gypsum—a refined mineral substance—was poured around the lower portion of the body. As the material set, it hardened into a solid mass that preserved delicate details of both the body and its immediate environment.

Such a burial method is extremely uncommon in Roman Britain. Researchers suggest the gypsum served as both a sealing layer and a preservative, protecting organic materials that would usually decompose. The technique is comparable to the well-known plaster casts from Pompeii, where cavities left by decayed bodies were filled to preserve detailed impressions of eruption victims.

Unique impressions created by a Roman burial ritual. Credit: Seeing the Dead Project

Handprints Captured in Gypsum
Among the most notable findings were apparent hand and finger marks preserved on the exterior of the gypsum layer. These impressions overturn earlier ideas that gypsum in Roman burials was poured at extremely high temperatures. Instead, the evidence suggests it was mixed into a thick, malleable paste and shaped manually.

Roman archaeologist Dr. Maureen Carroll of the University of York explained that these impressions point to a highly intimate stage of the burial process. The hands-on application of the gypsum may indicate an emotional bond between those performing the burial and the deceased—an element of Roman mortuary practice that is seldom visible archaeologically.

Unusually Well-Preserved Textiles
Equally significant were fabric impressions on the inside of the gypsum shell. Distinct patterns show that the body had been wrapped in garments or a burial cloth. Even more rare, tiny remnants of textile fibers were found trapped within the hardened gypsum beneath the remains.

Such preservation is exceptional in Roman contexts. Researchers suggest that the gypsum penetrated the fabric while still soft, then solidified around the fibers, shielding them over time. Why this burial retained textiles when others did not is still uncertain and is now a central question in further scientific study.

Fine details of fabrics are preserved in the hardened gypsum.

Handprints Preserved in Stone
One of the most remarkable findings was the presence of apparent hand and finger impressions on the outer layer of the gypsum casing. These marks contradict earlier beliefs that gypsum used in Roman burials was poured at extremely high temperatures. Instead, researchers now think the material had a thick, paste-like consistency and was shaped by hand.

According to Roman archaeologist Dr. Maureen Carroll of the University of York, these impressions point to an intimate and deliberate act within the burial process. Manually molding the gypsum may indicate a strong emotional bond between the mourners and the deceased—an element of Roman funerary practice that is rarely visible archaeologically.

Exceptionally Preserved Textiles
Equally striking were the impressions of textiles found on the inside of the hardened gypsum. Distinct patterns show that the body was wrapped in garments or a burial shroud at the time of burial. Even more unusual, tiny pieces of actual fabric were discovered trapped within the gypsum beneath the remains.

Such preservation is extremely uncommon in Roman contexts. Researchers suggest the wet gypsum penetrated the fabric and then hardened, encasing and safeguarding the fibers for centuries. Why textiles survived in this burial while others did not is still uncertain and remains a focus of ongoing study.

Scientific Sampling and DNA Potential
To document the burial with precision, archaeologists collected gypsum dust and fragments using a carefully mapped grid system. This method allows samples to be linked to specific body areas, including the head, hands, and feet, increasing the likelihood of extracting meaningful biological and material data.

The preserved gypsum and textile remnants may contain trace DNA, which could help identify the biological sex of the individual or offer clues about those who prepared the burial. While results are not assured, the potential alone marks a major step forward in understanding Roman burial customs.

Digital Reconstruction and Ongoing Research
High-resolution 3D scanning was carried out before and after excavation, recording details at a sub-millimetre scale. These scans enable a digital reconstruction of the burial as it originally appeared and ensure the data remains accessible for future research.

Although later contamination such as remnants from old display materials and pest treatments during museum storage—posed challenges and required protective measures, the excavation still produced exceptional findings. As laboratory analyses continue, the gypsum burial is expected to deepen knowledge of Roman craftsmanship, funerary rites, and the personal connections involved. More than a hundred years after its discovery, the sarcophagus is finally yielding its story preserved in stone and touch.

Stone Age rock paintings discovered in Tingvoll

Archaeologists have discovered previously unknown Stone Age rock paintings near Tingvoll municipality, located in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway.

Tingvoll is already recognised as one of Northern Europe’s most significant areas for prehistoric rock paintings, with previous studies documenting 25 distinct art fields distributed across two main locations.

Unlike petroglyphs, which are carved or etched into stone, these images are rock paintings, created by applying pigment (often ochre) directly onto the rock surface. Dating them precisely is challenging, but most are believed to have been produced between 3,000 and 7,000 years ago.

The newly discovered site, identified by Jan Magne Gjerde and his colleague Dag-Øyvind Engtrø Solem, constitutes a separate and previously unknown rock art area, further expanding the archaeological importance of the region.

The pair identified rock paintings depicting fish – believed by experts to represent salmon or halibut, alongside geometric motifs that are thought to symbolise a boat.

Solem, said: “We colour-manipulated the images to study the marks in the rock more closely, and then there was no doubt. These red lines were painted by humans.”

“Rock art is made in rocks that are constantly exposed to natural degradation. Over time, the paintings will therefore gradually disappear through various forms of weathering, and the condition varies greatly from place to place,” said Gjerde.

Leading experts in rock art conservation have been engaged to help assess, manage, and where possible preserve the rock paintings, which are currently deteriorating at an alarming rate.

In parallel, NIKU has worked in close cooperation with Møre og Romsdal County Council and the NTNU Science Museum to support research and long-term conservation efforts.

Chinese researchers uncover record-high evidence of ancient human activity on eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Chinese archaeologists have identified an important Paleolithic site at a record-breaking elevation on the eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, shedding new light on early human movement and adaptation, the Sichuan Provincial Cultural Heritage Administration announced.

The site is located near Tsungqen Co, a high-altitude lake in Daocheng County within the Garze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan Province, and represents the highest-elevation evidence of ancient human activity yet found in the area.

Full research results were published in the journal Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology by a joint team from Peking University and the Sichuan Provincial Cultural Relics and Archaeology Research Institute.

Tsungqen Co, which means “big lake” in the local language, is one of many glacial lakes formed after the Last Glacial Maximum as glaciers retreated. Such lakes would have drawn wildlife and offered crucial resources for prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups.

Situated more than 4,300 meters above sea level, the Tsungqen Co site is part of the well-known Piluo site complex, which was named one of China’s top ten archaeological discoveries in 2021.

The main Piluo site, lying at around 3,750 meters in elevation and dating back more than 200,000 years, is considered the earliest, largest, and richest Paleolithic site on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Tsungqen Co site, however, lies even higher, with its earliest occupation layers dating to about 12,000 years ago.

Researchers recovered more than 190 stone tools from the site, most of them small to medium in size. The assemblage reflects an advanced microlithic tradition, indicating refined production methods and technological adaptations suited to life at high altitude.

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau—often called the “Third Pole” because of its extreme height, thin air, and cold climate—has long been viewed as a difficult environment for early human settlement. The discovery at Tsungqen Co represents a major advance in Paleolithic research on the plateau’s eastern edge, significantly expanding knowledge of human presence in high-altitude regions.

“This was likely not a short-term camp, but a place people returned to repeatedly,” said Zheng Zhexuan, lead archaeologist of the Piluo project and head of the Paleolithic Archaeology Institute at the Sichuan Provincial Cultural Relics and Archaeology Research Institute.

“It indicates that more than 10,000 years ago, human groups were already using warmer climatic periods to live near highland lakes. They moved into and remained in these high-altitude areas, showing a stable ability to adapt to plateau conditions,” Zheng explained.

Scholars describe the Tsungqen Co site as a vital “spatiotemporal key” that fills an important gap in the archaeological record of human activity on the “roof of the world.” The discovery offers valuable evidence for studying early modern human dispersal routes in East Asia and their survival strategies in challenging environments.

Excavation and interdisciplinary studies at the broader Piluo site are ongoing, with researchers carrying out detailed analyses of dating, environmental context, and material remains to build a clearer picture of ancient life in this region.

Secret behind Norwich Castle's human remains revealed

Norwich Castle is well-known for the dark and complex history of its grounds.

A recent finding of centuries-old skeletons has added new intrigue to the site’s past.

The story of these bones, interred around 600 years ago within the castle mound, was shared in an engaging podcast.

Gone Medieval, hosted by historians Dr. Eleanor Janega and Matt Lewis, examines medieval myths and recently highlighted the 900-year-old Norwich landmark in a new episode.

Print of Norwich Castle during the 19th century

The duo toured Norwich Castle—a site that has served as a Norman fortress, royal palace, and later a Victorian prison—exploring the massive keep with archaeologist Dr. Tim Pestell.

They investigated fire-damaged vaults from medieval sieges, examined remarkable high-status artifacts uncovered in recent digs, and visited Henry I’s feasting hall, where he celebrated Christmas in 1121.

However, the skeletons discovered during the castle’s multi-million-pound renovation arguably attracted the most attention.

Dr. Pestell, project curator for The Royal Palace Reborn and senior curator of archaeology, explained: “During the renovation, we excavated several pits on the mound.

“We were setting up a tower crane to lift materials, and inside, we found several skeletons—fragments and partial remains.”

Dr Tim Pestell, senior curator at Norwich Castle Museum

“They almost certainly aren’t medieval,” Dr. Pestell explained. “They likely belonged to prisoners who had been brought into the keep.”

Norwich Castle County Gaol, the city’s prison, opened in the 14th century within the castle and served as a royal tool for administering justice.

“There had to be a place to bury those who were hanged,” he added.

Dr. Pestell noted that this wasn’t the first discovery of human remains; around 25 years ago, bones were found elsewhere on the site.

Archaeologists from Oxford Archaeology at work around the medieval pier bases at Norwich Castle

“The new finds were on the mound but in a different section,” he said. “This suggests that burials may have been more widespread. It reflects the long history of the keep and its functions.”

The castle, which developed into a medieval hub, still retains its original 12th-century vault, a key defensive feature.

Dr. Pestell observed, “The vault contains pink stonework that has clearly been burned. Significant heat likely came from below. We believe there were two sieges, in 1173 and 1216, and this damage is evidence of that.”

Mr. Lewis added humorously, “I doubt the king had planned for a massive bonfire.”

Unusual Bronze Age Burial Uncovered in Scotland

SANQUHAR, SCOTLAND—BBC News reports that archaeologists have uncovered the cremated remains of at least eight individuals inside five urns within a Bronze Age barrow in southern Scotland. Thomas Muir from Guard Archaeology and his team discovered the burial mound while surveying the area ahead of a wind farm construction. The site has been dated to between 1439 and 1287 B.C. Muir suggested that the individuals may have belonged to the same family or social group and that their deaths could have resulted from famine or another catastrophic event. “The urns were all deposited simultaneously, tightly packed in the pit, and share the same fifteenth to thirteenth century B.C. date range,” he explained. At a nearby Bronze Age site, Muir noted that bodies were sometimes exposed before being reburied in a communal burial location used over a long period.

The original research is published in Archaeology Reports Online. For more on Bronze Age Britain, see "Bronze Age Beads Go Abroad."

Where does the name Chadwell Heath originate from?

There’s a mystery surrounding Chadwell Heath—where does its name originate?

I decided to explore the area on foot, which turned into a two-hour walk.

My route took me from Collier Row Road, up Whalebone Lane North, down Forest Road, along Hainault Road, and finally onto Billet Road, looping back to Whalebone Lane North.

By the last stretch, I was feeling tired, but on Billet Road I stumbled upon a hidden piece of history tucked among roadside bushes and fly-tipped rubbish near the junction with Hainault Road.

I had seen this spot from the 296 bus almost daily, but it wasn’t until I walked past a brick and concrete monument with a faded plaque that it truly caught my eye.

Chad’s name lives on in a monument passed daily

The plaque reads:

ST. CHAD'S WELL
THE SITE OF ST. CHAD'S WELL FROM WHICH THE NAME CHADWELL HEATH IS DERIVED.

THIS TABLET WAS PLACED HERE BY THE ILFORD BOROUGH COUNCIL ON BEHALF OF THE CITIZENS OF ILFORD, TO COMMEMORATE THE FESTIVAL OF BRITAIN, 1951.

As a former archaeology student, I was intrigued and wondered how well the monument was remembered.

I started digging and discovered the monument is listed as a historical landmark on Google Maps, including photos and a visitor comment from four years ago.

Checking Wikipedia, however, offered a different explanation for the town’s name:

• “Chadwell” was first recorded in 1254 as Chaudewell, meaning “the cold spring.”

• The name was initially applied to a settlement on the Barking side of the Dagenham–Barking boundary and was also called Chadwell Street (with “street” meaning hamlet).

• In the 17th century, Blackheath Common in Dagenham parish was renamed Chadwell Heath.

• As settlements merged, Chadwell Street was replaced by Chadwell Heath.

Searching for links to a person named Chad or St. Chad, I found St. Chad’s parish church in Chadwell Heath on St. Chad’s Road, dedicated to Chad, brother of Cedd, both bishops and saints.

Chad was a 7th-century Anglo-Saxon monk, abbot, and later bishop of the Northumbrians, Mercians, and Lindsey people. According to Bede, he and Bishop Wilfrid of Ripon introduced Christianity to Mercia. Chad died around March 2, 672, probably from the plague, and was canonized in Anglican, Roman Catholic, Celtic Orthodox, and Eastern Orthodox traditions. His feast day is March 2.

Chad is associated with wells: he dug wells for travelers, believed to have miraculous properties. While there’s no direct evidence of Chad overseeing springs, the Spa Research Fellowship calls him the patron saint of medicinal springs. This might explain why St. Chad’s Well, linked to a “cold spring” in Essex, bears his name despite him not ministering there.

Pixy Led Publications notes:

• A reputed medicinal well on Billet Lane, near Little Heath, was frequented by people with weak eyesight, as the water was believed to help the eyes.

• Missionaries often baptized converts at local wells, which were sometimes named after famous saints. It’s said Cedd baptized people here, and the well became associated with Chad due to its healing properties.

Nearby waterways on Google Maps show an irrigation ditch across the road and small creeks behind the monument.

Questions remain:

• Should the Wikipedia explanation of Chadwell Heath’s name reconcile with St. Chad’s Well?

• Is the similarity between Chaudewell and Chad’s Well coincidental?

• What exactly does Chaudewell mean?

The name Chad comes from the Celtic Ceadda, derived from Proto-Brythonic kad (“battle”), with no link to wells or springs. “Chaude” is French for “hot” or “warm,” not related to Chad. Old English for “cold” is cald, with Proto-West Germanic roots kald, and ultimately Proto-Indo-European gel- (“cold”). Perhaps chaude was a corruption of cheald, but that seems unlikely.

Thus, there appears to be a discrepancy between Wikipedia’s etymology and local understanding in 1951. While Chad did not directly minister in Essex, missionaries or his brother Cedd may have, leading to the naming of the well (by 1254), the church (1886), and the road (c.1900) after him.

The monument deserves attention: not every area has its origin story engraved in stone, and the council should consider restoring this 74-year-old piece of local history.

No Mortar, No Cement, No Metal – How Sardinia’s Nuragic Towers Have Defied Gravity for 3,500 Years?

Sardinia’s Nuragic towers have endured for 3,500 years without mortar, cement, or metal, and new scientific research is now explaining the ancient engineering principles that allowed these Bronze Age structures to defy gravity for millennia.

Across Sardinia’s hills, plains, and volcanic plateaus, the stone towers known as nuraghi have stood for over three thousand years. Erected by the Nuragic civilization between about 1800 and 700 BCE, these imposing monuments have long challenged archaeologists and engineers. Despite being built entirely of stone blocks, with no binding materials or metal supports, many remain standing in impressive condition today.

A recent scientific study has uncovered the structural logic behind their remarkable durability. The findings show that their strength comes not only from the size of the stones used, but also from materials once thought to be insignificant—loose rubble hidden within the walls.

An ancient puzzle shaped in stone
More than 8,000 nuraghi are spread throughout Sardinia, ranging from modest single towers to large, complex fortifications with multiple towers, walls, and courtyards. Their defining feature is a unique design: an outer tower shaped like a truncated cone that surrounds an inner chamber topped by a corbelled false dome, or tholos. The space between the inner and outer walls is filled with a thick mix of soil, small stones, and pebbles.

For many years, this fill was seen as little more than leftover material or dead weight. Researchers debated whether the towers’ stability relied mainly on the sheer mass of the stones, their circular form, or the dome-like structure of the tholos. What had not been closely examined until now was whether the fill itself played an active mechanical role in keeping the towers stable.

That question has now been answered.

Recreating the past through modern physics
In research published in the International Journal of Architectural Heritage, an Italian team led by Augusto Bortolussi used advanced computational modeling to study a typical Nuragic tower. They employed the Distinct Element Method (DEM), a technique suited for analyzing structures composed of individual blocks and granular materials, allowing them to replicate the tower as it actually functions—countless stones interacting through gravity, friction, and pressure.

The digital reconstructions matched the real proportions of nuraghi, with outer towers reaching up to 16 meters in height and inner chambers measuring up to six meters across. Importantly, the models also accounted for how the granular fill behaves when compressed.

The findings were conclusive.

Archaic Nuraghe Sa perdaia (1), Teulada (SU); single Tower Nuraghe Lighei (2) sedilo (OR), Santu Antine complex Nuraghe (3), Torralba (SS)

The fill that holds everything together

The study demonstrates that the tholos is composed of stacked horizontal rings of stone blocks that, on their own, would be unstable. Without external support, these rings tend to rotate inward and spread outward under gravity, eventually collapsing.

The compacted fill material changes everything.

As the weight of the structure presses down, the loose fill compresses and generates horizontal radial pressure in all directions. This pressure acts inward on the tholos, locking its stone rings into a stable, continuous structure. In effect, the fill transforms independent blocks into a unified system capable of standing for centuries.

But physics is unforgivingly symmetrical. The same pressure that stabilizes the tholos also pushes outward—directly against the external tower.

Why the outer wall is built like a fortress

This is where the iconic cyclopean stones of the outer wall come into play. Often weighing several tons each, these massive blocks create enormous friction at their horizontal joints. That friction counteracts the outward thrust exerted by the compressed fill.

In structural terms, the external tower functions as a gigantic retaining wall or buttress. While the fill is essential for the stability of the inner chamber, it also places the outer wall under constant stress. The balance between these three elements—the tholos, the fill, and the external tower—is what keeps the entire structure standing.

The simulations quantified this balance. The static safety factor of the tholos was calculated at an exceptionally high 6.7, thanks to the stabilizing effect of the fill. By contrast, the external tower’s safety factor was 1.5, making it the most critical and vulnerable component of the system. Its stability depends almost entirely on friction between the massive stone blocks.

Reconstructing how the nuraghi were built

Understanding the statics also revealed how these towers must have been constructed. Building the tholos first would have caused it to collapse without lateral support. Constructing both stone walls and then adding fill later would not allow proper compaction.

The only feasible method, confirmed by the study, is construction by successive horizontal rings. The Nuragic builders raised one level at a time: an inner ring of tholos blocks, an outer ring of tower blocks, and then poured and compacted fill between them before moving upward.

This step-by-step technique ensured that the tholos received immediate horizontal support at every stage, while the outer wall resisted the growing pressure. It reflects a sophisticated empirical understanding of statics—achieved without mathematics, writing, or formal engineering theory.

Backfill material: (a) Soil and stones of various sizes, in Nuraghe Sa Domu e’ S’Orcu, Domusnovas (SU); (b) Stones, in Nuraghe Mereu, Orgosolo (NU)

Implications for UNESCO and conservation
These discoveries come at a pivotal time, as thirty-two Nuragic sites are under consideration for UNESCO World Heritage status. Knowing how these towers function is vital for their protection.

Any restoration that removes or alters the fill or disrupts the friction between the outer wall stones could seriously threaten stability. The study offers a scientific basis for conservation practices that honor the original engineering principles rather than unintentionally weakening them.

A legacy of intuitive genius
The survival of the nuraghi is not accidental or due to sheer strength. It reflects a sophisticated construction method where every component—from the smallest stone in the fill to the largest exterior block—serves to balance forces.

Long before formal engineering existed, the Nuragic civilization mastered gravity through observation, experience, and clever design. These towers remain today not only as emblems of Sardinian heritage but as universal testaments to humanity’s early grasp of physics—a knowledge that modern science is only now fully revealing.

Venice’s Medieval Glass Industry Examined News

VENICE, ITALY—According to a statement released by Ca’Foscari University of Venice, Margherita Ferri of Ca’ Foscari University, Elisabetta Gliozzo of the University of Florence, and Eleonora Braschi of Italy’s National Research Council analyzed glass fragments, waste from glass production, and a steatite crucible unearthed at the site of San Pietro di Castello on the island of Olivolo. All of the objects were dated from the sixth to the ninth centuries A.D., when the island was located near the entrance to Venice’s harbor. Roman glass was made with natron from Egypt, but when it became difficult to obtain this material, Europeans began to make glass with plant ash. The researchers discovered that glass was fabricated using the new recipe in Venice as early as the eighth century. The chemical makeup of the glass also revealed that these new ingredients had been imported from the Levant. “This means that Venice, 1,300 years ago, not only was aware of this new technology, but its trade networks were so efficient that it imported cutting-edge materials produced hundreds of kilometers away,” Ferri said. Testing also showed that an early medieval blue mosaic tile containing an opacifying agent that fell out of use after the fourth century had been made with recycled Roman glass. Medieval Venetians also produced blue-colored glass by reusing metalworking slag, which contains cobalt, the researchers explained. Read the original scholarly article about this research in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. To read about remnants of a Roman road that is now submerged in the Venetian lagoon, go to "A Trip to Venice."

2,600-Year-Old Tandoor Discovered at Oluz Höyük Reveals Deep Roots of Anatolian Culinary Traditions

Archaeologists excavating the ancient site of Oluz Höyük in northern Turkey have revealed a remarkably intact tandoor oven that is about 2,600 old and dates to the Persian (Achaemenid) period, providing rare evidence of long-standing culinary traditions in Anatolia.

The oven was uncovered during the 19th excavation season at Oluz Höyük near Amasya, led by Prof. Dr. Şevket Dönmez of Istanbul University’s Department of Archaeology. Prof. Dönmez explained that the underground, fired-clay tandoor closely resembles those still commonly used in Anatolia today.

“This tandoor is almost identical to the ones found in present-day Anatolian villages,” Prof. Dönmez said. “The main difference is simply its age—it is 2,600 old.”

Insight into Everyday Life in Antiquity
The tandoor was found next to a stone work surface thought to have been used for kneading dough or processing grain, suggesting the space served as a household food preparation area. This supports the view that bread production and shared cooking activities were already an established part of daily life in Anatolia during the Persian period.

Researchers note that similar cooking structures have been present in the region since Neolithic times, but the Oluz Höyük example is particularly notable for both its sophisticated construction and excellent state of preservation. “This find highlights how deeply embedded Anatolia’s cooking methods and food traditions are,” Prof. Dönmez added.

The recently uncovered tandoor is also linked to an important discovery made at Oluz Höyük two years earlier. Archaeologists found a large clay vessel inside what is believed to have been a kitchen in a Persian-period palace. The pot contained animal bones and cereal grains, and laboratory analysis confirmed it had been used to cook keşkek, one of Anatolia’s oldest ceremonial foods.

Keşkek is traditionally prepared by slowly cooking wheat or barley with meat—commonly lamb or chicken—until it becomes a thick, porridge-like dish. It remains a staple at weddings, religious events, and communal gatherings, especially in rural Anatolia, and was recognized by UNESCO in 2011 as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

“Keşkek was very likely prepared in these tandoors,” Prof. Dönmez said. “This provides clear evidence of a continuous culinary tradition stretching from the Persian era to the present.”

Oluz Höyük: A Multicultural Center of the Past
Oluz Höyük is regarded as one of the most significant archaeological sites in the Central Black Sea region. Excavations reveal continuous occupation from the Late Bronze Age to the Hellenistic period, including a distinctive phase linked to Zoroastrian beliefs, making it one of the earliest known sites of Persian religious influence in Anatolia.

Finds at the site include Persian administrative buildings, ritual areas, and domestic structures, indicating that Oluz Höyük served as an important regional hub during the Achaemenid period.

Enduring Food Traditions
The discovery of the tandoor adds valuable insight into everyday life during the Persian period and underscores the remarkable persistence of Anatolian culinary practices. Techniques such as baking bread on tandoor walls and slow-cooking keşkek have remained largely unchanged for thousands of years.

Ongoing excavations are expected to reveal further details about daily life, food preparation, and social customs in ancient Anatolia, demonstrating how deeply the past continues to shape present-day traditions.

Classical-period tomb discovered in Manbij, northeast of Aleppo

The General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums announced on Friday the discovery of an archaeological tomb in the city of Manbij, northeast of Aleppo, dating to the classical period. The find was made during emergency excavation work carried out by an archaeological mission at the site.

In a statement posted on the directorate’s official Facebook page, the discovery occurred while construction was underway on a private property in Manbij. Archaeological indications appeared during the work, leading the Aleppo Directorate of Antiquities and Museums to form an urgent excavation team to examine the location.

Excavations revealed a tomb composed of a main chamber and three adjacent rooms featuring semi-circular arches, an architectural style typical of the classical era. No artifacts of notable historical importance were found inside the tomb.

The Directorate reiterated its dedication to safeguarding Syria’s cultural heritage and called on citizens to report any archaeological remains discovered during digging or construction, helping ensure their protection for future generations.

The Manbij area in eastern Aleppo is considered a natural open-air museum due to its abundance of ancient remains. Historically referred to as the “Sacred City” (Hierapolis), the region contains several major archaeological sites, including Qalaat Najm, the Umm al-Sarj site, and the ancient walls of Manbij, along with Roman tombs, mosaic panels, and numerous other archaeological finds.

Archaeologists Uncovered the First Evidence of Math—Before Numbers Were Even Invented

The Halafian culture of northern Mesopotamia arranged floral depictions on pottery with symmetry and numerical sequences, displaying one of the earliest pieces of evidence of mathematical thinking.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Here’s what you’ll discover in this story:

Uncovering signs of ancient mathematics is difficult without written sources, but new research suggests that floral designs on pottery from the Halafian culture of northern Mesopotamia reveal an understanding of geometry, symmetry, and spatial division that predates formal number systems.
The findings also mark the earliest known point at which plants became subjects of human art, as earlier artistic expressions mainly focused on animals and people.
Across 700 pottery fragments, artists depicted non-edible plants such as flowers, indicating they were selected for visual appeal rather than practical use.

Mathematics functions as a universal language—not Esperanto, but a system grounded in shared principles across cultures. This universality explains why mathematics often appears in science fiction as a means of communicating with extraterrestrials. The same logic applies across time. While archaeologists rely on reference texts like the Rosetta Stone to interpret ancient languages, mathematical patterns can be recognized and understood even millennia later.

In a study published in the Journal of World Prehistory, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem examined floral motifs painted on pottery by the Halafian culture, which inhabited northern Mesopotamia between 6200 and 5500 B.C.E., revealing sophisticated mathematical thinking embedded in prehistoric art.

The Role of Myth in Sumerian Kingship

How Sumerian Myths Reinforced Royal Authority

Introduction to Sumerian Mythology
Sumerian myths often connected rulers directly to the divine, portraying kings as chosen by gods or even semi-divine figures themselves. These narratives reinforced the social hierarchy and legitimized political authority in city-states like Ur, Uruk, and Lagash.

Divine Kingship
Myths such as those surrounding Gilgamesh, Lugalbanda, and Enmerkar presented kings as intermediaries between gods and humans. Kings were tasked with upholding cosmic order (me) and maintaining harmony between humanity and the divine.

Myth as Political Tool
Stories reinforced the king’s right to rule by emphasizing divine favor. Temple inscriptions, epic poetry, and hymns portrayed rulers as divinely sanctioned, instilling loyalty among subjects and ensuring societal stability.

Ritual and Cultural Significance
Kings participated in religious rituals that reenacted mythic events, strengthening their authority. Festivals, offerings, and temple ceremonies symbolically linked the king with gods, creating a tangible demonstration of divine endorsement.

Legacy of Myth in Governance
Sumerian myth set a precedent for later Mesopotamian empires, establishing a framework where religious narratives and political power were deeply intertwined. By embedding mythology in governance, Sumerians ensured that kingship was both a spiritual and temporal institution, shaping societal norms and cultural continuity for centuries.

The Sacred Bull in Ancient Cultures

Symbolism in Minoan, Mesopotamian, and Indus Valley Religions

Introduction to Bull Symbolism
The bull has been one of the most enduring symbols across ancient civilizations, representing strength, fertility, and divine authority. Its presence in art, rituals, and mythology demonstrates its spiritual significance.

Minoan Civilization
In Minoan Crete (c. 2000–1450 BCE), the bull was central to religious ceremonies. Bull-leaping frescoes depict acrobatic rituals where participants vaulted over bulls, symbolizing human mastery over nature and spiritual communion. The bull represented vitality, fertility, and connection with the gods.

Mesopotamian Beliefs
In Mesopotamia, bulls were associated with storm gods and kingship. The Bull of Heaven appears in the Epic of Gilgamesh, symbolizing divine punishment and cosmic power. Cultures in Sumer, Akkad, and Babylon depicted bulls in temples, seals, and sculptures to reinforce authority and protection.

Indus Valley Civilization
In the Indus Valley (c. 3300–1300 BCE), bull motifs appear on seals and pottery, indicating economic and spiritual importance. Bulls were likely sacred, connected to fertility and agricultural productivity. They symbolized both human sustenance and cosmic order.

Cultural Legacy
Across these cultures, the bull represented life, strength, and divine favor. Its depiction in art, mythology, and ritual demonstrates the shared human desire to connect with forces greater than oneself and to seek protection, fertility, and prosperity through symbolic representation.

The Mystery of the Etruscans

Language, Culture, and Influence on Rome

Introduction to the Etruscans
The Etruscans were an influential civilization in ancient Italy. Their origins remain debated, with theories suggesting local development or migration from the Near East.

Language and Writing
The Etruscan language used a unique alphabet derived from Greek scripts. Despite numerous inscriptions on tombs, pottery, and monuments, the language is only partially understood today, limiting insights into their daily lives and governance.

Cultural Achievements
Etruscans excelled in metallurgy, architecture, urban planning, and art. Tomb paintings reveal elaborate rituals, banquets, and music, highlighting their sophisticated lifestyle.

Religious Practices
Religion played a central role, including divination, augury, and worship of deities similar to later Roman gods. Temples and sacred spaces were carefully aligned with cosmological principles.

Influence on Rome
Etruscan kings ruled Rome before the Republic, influencing Roman religion, architecture, military organization, and social customs. Many elements of Roman engineering and governance have Etruscan roots.

The God-Kings of Ancient Egypt

Analyzing the Concept of Divine Rulership Among the Pharaohs

Introduction to Pharaohs
Ancient Egyptian kings were seen as divine intermediaries between gods and people. Their authority encompassed religious, political, and military domains, reinforcing the unity of the state.

Divine Symbolism
Pharaohs were considered incarnations of Horus during life and Osiris after death. Iconography, including crowns, scepters, and regalia, emphasized their sacred and earthly power.

Political Authority
As absolute rulers, pharaohs controlled taxation, law, trade, and military campaigns. Their decrees were considered divinely sanctioned, blending religion and governance seamlessly.

Funerary Practices
Tombs and mortuary temples reinforced the pharaoh’s divine status. Monumental architecture, like pyramids and obelisks, ensured eternal remembrance and cosmic alignment.

Cultural Legacy
The god-king concept influenced neighboring civilizations and later ideologies about divine rulership, reflecting the inseparable link between religion, authority, and social structure in ancient Egypt.

The Ancient Olympic Games

Origins, Events, and Significance in Ancient Greece

Introduction to the Games
The Olympic Games began in 776 BCE at Olympia to honor Zeus. They became a central feature of Panhellenic culture, combining religious devotion, athletic competition, and political diplomacy.

Events and Competitions
Athletes competed in footraces, wrestling, javelin, discus, and chariot racing. Victory brought not only personal glory but also political prestige to the athlete’s city-state.

Religious Significance
Ceremonies included sacrifices and offerings to Zeus, linking athletic excellence to spiritual favor. Athletic prowess was considered a reflection of moral and physical virtue.

Cultural and Political Role
The games provided a temporary truce among warring city-states, facilitating diplomacy and exchange. They were also a platform to display wealth, honor heroes, and celebrate Greek identity.

Legacy of the Olympics
The Olympic tradition influenced later athletic festivals, inspired modern Olympic Games, and continues to represent ideals of excellence, unity, and competition.

The Legend of the Minotaur and the Labyrinth

Exploring the Myth of Theseus and Minoan Crete

Introduction to the Myth
The story of the Minotaur, a creature half-man and half-bull, encapsulates Minoan religious symbolism and Greek mythmaking. The labyrinth, designed by Daedalus, served as both prison and ritualistic symbol.

Cultural Context
The myth may reflect bull-worship practices on Crete, where bull-leaping and ceremonial rituals were central to Minoan religion. It also illustrates human confrontation with chaos and divine power.

Symbolism of the Labyrinth
The labyrinth represents complex paths of fate, initiation, and spiritual trials. In mythology, it functions as both a protective enclosure and a challenge to heroic intelligence.

Theseus and Heroism
Theseus’ triumph over the Minotaur embodies the ideal of human courage, strategy, and divine favor. His story was retold as a symbol of overcoming chaos through intellect and bravery.

Legacy in Art and Literature
The Minotaur myth inspired Greek tragedy, Renaissance art, and modern literature, highlighting the enduring power of myth to explore human psychology and cultural memory.