The Sacred Fire of Ancient Persia

Fire held profound religious significance in ancient Persian culture, particularly within Zoroastrianism. Fire symbolized truth, purity, and the presence of Ahura Mazda, the supreme god. It was not worshiped as a god itself but revered as a sacred medium.

Fire temples housed eternal flames that were carefully maintained by priests. Rituals emphasized cleanliness, moral purity, and cosmic order. Fire represented the struggle between truth and deception, light and darkness, central themes in Zoroastrian belief.

These practices influenced later religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, particularly concepts of moral dualism and judgment. The sacred fire remains a powerful symbol of Persian spiritual heritage.

The Kingdom of Lydia and the First Coins

The Kingdom of Lydia, located in western Anatolia, is credited with inventing the world’s first true coins around the 7th century BCE. These coins were made from electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver, and were stamped with official symbols to guarantee value.

Before coinage, trade relied on barter or weighed metal, which was inefficient. Lydia’s innovation transformed commerce by creating standardized currency that could be easily exchanged. Coins allowed markets to expand, facilitated taxation, and strengthened state authority. King Croesus later refined the system by issuing pure gold and silver coins.

The idea of coinage spread rapidly to Greece and beyond, shaping global economic systems. Lydia’s invention laid the foundation for modern monetary economies and permanently altered trade, governance, and social organization.

The Ancient Greek Mystery Schools

Greek mystery schools were secret religious traditions that promised initiates spiritual knowledge and a better fate after death. Unlike public religion, these cults restricted their teachings to those who underwent initiation. The most famous were the Eleusinian Mysteries, dedicated to Demeter and Persephone.

Initiates participated in rituals symbolizing death and rebirth, reflecting agricultural cycles and human mortality. Though details remain secret, ancient sources suggest the experience was transformative and deeply emotional. Orphism emphasized purification of the soul and reincarnation, while Dionysian cults focused on ecstatic rituals, music, and liberation from social constraints.

These mystery traditions influenced Greek philosophy and later religious movements. Ideas about the soul, afterlife, and spiritual purification shaped thinkers such as Plato. The mystery schools offered personal salvation in a world dominated by fate and suffering, making them profoundly significant in ancient spiritual life.

The Scythian Burial Mounds

The Scythians were nomadic warrior cultures that dominated the Eurasian степpe from around the 9th to 3rd centuries BCE. Much of what we know about them comes from their kurgans, or burial mounds, scattered across modern-day Russia, Ukraine, and Central Asia. These burial sites reveal extraordinary insights into Scythian social structure, beliefs, and artistry.

Scythian burials were elaborate and often included weapons, horses, clothing, jewelry, and household items. Elite individuals were buried with sacrificed servants and horses, reflecting beliefs in an afterlife where status continued. Frozen kurgans in Siberia preserved organic materials, allowing archaeologists to study textiles, tattoos, and wooden objects.

The artistic style found in Scythian graves is known as the animal style, featuring dynamic depictions of animals in combat or motion. These images likely held symbolic meanings connected to power, protection, and spiritual transformation. The kurgans demonstrate that despite their nomadic lifestyle, the Scythians possessed sophisticated craftsmanship and complex religious beliefs centered on death and the afterlife.

The Mysterious Copper Scroll

The Copper Scroll is one of the most unusual documents discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Unlike the others, which were written on parchment or papyrus, this scroll was engraved on copper sheets. It dates to the 1st century CE and contains a list of locations where vast quantities of gold, silver, and sacred objects were supposedly hidden.

What makes the Copper Scroll unique is its practical and administrative tone. Rather than religious teachings or laws, it reads like an inventory or treasure map. The scroll lists dozens of burial sites, caves, and underground chambers, each allegedly containing enormous wealth. Scholars debate whether the treasures were real, symbolic, or exaggerated records of Temple wealth hidden during the Roman destruction of Jerusalem.

Despite several archaeological searches inspired by the scroll, no confirmed treasures have been found. Some researchers believe the scroll reflects priestly knowledge of sacred deposits, while others argue it was a symbolic or fictional document. The use of copper suggests the information was meant to endure, indicating its importance. The Copper Scroll remains one of the greatest mysteries of ancient Judaism and continues to fascinate historians and archaeologists.

The Glass-Making Industry of Ancient Phoenicia

The Phoenicians were pioneers in the development and spread of glass-making technology across the ancient Mediterranean world. While glass existed earlier in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Phoenicians refined production techniques and transformed glass into a widely traded luxury item. Their coastal cities, such as Tyre and Sidon, became major centers for glass craftsmanship.

Phoenician artisans mastered the use of sand rich in silica and developed methods to control heat and color. One of their greatest innovations was glassblowing, which allowed molten glass to be shaped quickly and efficiently. This technique revolutionized glass production, making it more affordable and versatile. Phoenician glassware included vessels, beads, amulets, and decorative objects that were traded across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East.

Glass also held symbolic and ritual significance. Colored glass imitated precious stones and was used in jewelry and religious items. The Phoenician trade networks ensured that glass-making knowledge spread to Greece and Rome, where it was further refined. The Roman glass industry, in particular, owed much of its success to Phoenician innovation. Through commerce and craftsmanship, the Phoenicians permanently shaped ancient material culture.

The Ancient Roots of Yoga

Yoga has ancient origins that can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization and early Vedic traditions of South Asia. Archaeological evidence, such as seals depicting figures in meditative postures, suggests that yogic practices existed as early as 2500 BCE. These early forms of yoga were not physical exercise systems but spiritual disciplines focused on self-control, breath, and inner awareness.

In the Vedic period, yoga developed alongside religious rituals and philosophical thought. The Vedas describe practices involving breath control (pranayama), meditation, and disciplined living as methods for connecting with cosmic order, known as ṛta. Over time, these ideas evolved into deeper philosophical systems found in the Upanishads, where yoga became a tool for achieving self-realization and liberation from suffering.

Classical yoga was later systematized by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras, which outlined the eightfold path, including ethical behavior, meditation, and concentration. Yoga was closely linked to Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions, each adapting it to their spiritual goals. Rather than focusing on physical flexibility, ancient yoga aimed to discipline the mind and transcend the ego. Modern yoga practices draw from these ancient roots, though often emphasizing physical postures more than spiritual transformation.

The Early Maya Calendar

The Maya developed one of the most complex and accurate calendar systems in the ancient world, reflecting their advanced understanding of astronomy and mathematics. Their timekeeping was not used merely for counting days but was deeply connected to religion, agriculture, and political authority. The Maya believed time was cyclical rather than linear, meaning events repeated themselves in predictable cosmic patterns. This belief shaped how they interpreted history and future events.

The Maya calendar system consisted of several interlocking cycles. The Tzolk’in, a 260-day ritual calendar, was used for religious ceremonies and divination. The Haab’, a 365-day solar calendar, governed agricultural activities such as planting and harvesting. These two calendars worked together in a 52-Haab’ cycle known as the Calendar Round, after which dates repeated. For longer historical records, the Maya used the Long Count calendar, which tracked time across vast periods using a base-20 mathematical system.

Astronomical observations were central to Maya timekeeping. They closely tracked the movements of the sun, moon, Venus, and other celestial bodies. Many temples and pyramids were aligned with solstices, equinoxes, and planetary cycles. The calendar reinforced royal power, as rulers used important dates to legitimize their reigns through ritual and monument inscriptions. The Maya calendar stands as a remarkable achievement, demonstrating how science, religion, and governance were deeply intertwined.

Silver necklace depicting Assyrian goddess Ishtar unearthed in southwestern Türkiye

Discovery highlights ancient city of Amos' role as key cultural and commercial hub linking Near East, Mediterranean

MUGLA, Türkiye

Archaeologists have unearthed a silver necklace depicting a lion and an eight-pointed star, believed to represent the Assyrian goddess Ishtar, at the ancient city of Amos in southwestern Türkiye.

The 2,200-year-old site on Asarcik Hill in the Marmaris district has been under continuous excavation throughout 2025, led by Mehmet Gurbuzer of Mugla Sitki Kocman University. Gurbuzer noted that each excavation season yields exciting discoveries, with this year’s find highlighting Amos’s cultural, economic, and commercial significance.

Ishtar—known as Inanna in Sumerian culture—symbolizes power, and the necklace suggests that Amos was closely connected to major civilizations of its time. Advanced cultural elements from the Near East reached the Mediterranean through trade and military relations by the 7th century BCE, positioning Amos as a strategic port city.

Excavations are set to continue in 2026, focusing on residential areas and the Temple of Apollo Samnaios. The site, officially recognized by a 2022 presidential decree, is part of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism’s Heritage for the Future Project, supported by local organizations including the Marmaris Chamber of Commerce and Marmaris Municipality.

Amos was first excavated in 1948 by British archaeologist G.E. Bean. Early finds, including lease contracts documenting land rentals, helped establish the city’s importance in ancient economic and academic contexts.

Humans cared for wolves long before dogs emerged, study finds

New evidence of wolves and humans living together on Swedish island points to likely prehistoric domestication

Prehistoric wolf remains discovered on a Baltic island indicate that humans may have cared for wolves thousands of years before dogs fully domesticated, according to a recent study.

Archaeologists uncovered the remains, dated between 3,000 and 5,000 years ago, in the Stora Förvar cave on Stora Karlsö, Sweden. The cave showed extensive use by Stone Age and Bronze Age seal hunters and fishers, researchers from Stockholm University reported.

Since the 2.5 sq km island had no native land mammals, the wolves were likely brought there by humans, probably via boats.

While dogs evolved from wolves during the Old Stone Age, the timing and number of domestication events remain unclear. Some theories suggest wolves gradually adapted to human presence, while others propose humans hand-reared wolf pups from an early age. No remains of wolves from the earliest stages of domestication have yet been found.

The new findings suggest that humans and wolves coexisted on Stora Karlsö, pointing to early human efforts at wolf domestication.

Modern domesticated dogs are theorised to be the ancestors of Grey wolves

DNA analysis of two bones from the cave confirmed the animals were wolves, not dogs, and several features indicate they had close contact with humans.

One wolf appeared to have survived a limb injury that would have made hunting difficult, suggesting it received human care.

“This discovery of wolves on a remote island is completely unexpected,” said Linus Girdland-Flink from the University of Aberdeen, a co-author of the study published in PNAS.

“Not only did they have ancestry similar to other Eurasian wolves, but they also seemed to live alongside humans, eating their food, in a location they could only have reached by boat.”

A view from the Stora Förvar cave on the island of Stora Karlsö in Sweden

Although it’s unclear whether the wolves were tamed, kept in captivity, or managed differently, the findings show that human–wolf relationships were more complex than previously thought.

The interactions at the cave suggest close cooperation, pointing to early domestication experiments that didn’t directly lead to modern dogs, scientists say.

“While we can’t rule out that these wolves had low genetic diversity for natural reasons, it indicates humans were interacting with and managing wolves in ways we hadn’t considered,” said Anders Bergström from the University of East Anglia.

“This case raises the possibility that, in certain environments, humans could keep wolves in their settlements and found value in doing so,” added Pontus Skoglund from the Francis Crick Institute.

Ancient Buddhist Site Unearthed in Kashmir’s Baramulla District Highlights Region’s Kushan-Era Past

Archaeologists in Jammu and Kashmir have discovered a 2,000-year-old Buddhist complex in Zehanpora village, Baramulla District, offering fresh insights into the Kashmir Valley’s early Buddhist history and its links to the broader Gandhara culture.

Announced after systematic excavation and survey work in 2025, the site revealed Buddhist stupas, monastic buildings, and urban-style settlement remains dating mainly to the Kushan period (1st–3rd centuries CE). The findings have gained national attention, with India’s prime minister, Narendra Modi, calling it a “proud moment” that highlights Kashmir’s rich historical heritage.

Located on farmland along the Jhelum River, the site had long been marked by low mounds known to locals. While these features had occasionally attracted scholarly interest, their importance only became clear after recent technological and archival research.

Officials say a breakthrough came when century-old, blurred photographs in a French museum archive were identified, showing three Buddhist stupas in the Baramulla region. During a monthly radio address, Prime Minister Modi noted that these “rare pictures… helped researchers connect the dots and confirm the historical importance of Jehanpora.”

Subsequent drone surveys and aerial mapping confirmed that the Zehanpora mounds were manmade. Excavations revealed apsidal stupa foundations, monastic cells, pottery shards, copper artifacts, and stone walls, with layouts closely matching Gandharan Buddhist architectural styles.

The dig was a joint effort by the Department of Archives, Archaeology and Museums (DAAM), Jammu and Kashmir, and the University of Kashmir, with approval from the Archaeological Survey of India. Onsite work was led by assistant archaeology professor Mohammad Ajmal Shah under the supervision of DAAM director Kuldeep Krishan Sidha.

Excavation assistant Javaid Ahmed Matto described the discovery as “a matter of pride,” noting that both archaeological and literary sources, including accounts by the seventh-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, had long indicated Buddhism’s presence in Kashmir. Matto added that all recovered artifacts—pottery, copper items, and stone walls—belong to the Kushan period, and further stupas are expected to be unearthed.

Scholars say the Zehanpora findings firmly place Kashmir within the Gandhara Buddhist network, which connected regions of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India through trade, pilgrimage, and monastic exchange. Harmeet Singh Soodan, head of the Political Science Department at Government Degree College, Katra, noted that the complex’s scale and layout suggest sustained patronage over centuries, supporting historical references to Kashmir as a center of Buddhist learning.

Buddhism is thought to have arrived in Kashmir during the Mauryan period under Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE) and expanded notably under the Kushan dynasty. The Kushans, whose empire stretched from Central Asia through the Kashmir Valley to the Gangetic plain, actively promoted Buddhism, trade, and urban development.

Officials say the Zehanpora site may also be linked to the ancient Kushan capital of Huvishkapura, highlighting Baramulla’s historic role as a gateway between Kashmir and the Gandhara region.

“Jehanpora’s rediscovery reinforces Kashmir’s historic place as a confluence of civilizations,” an official involved in the project stated. “It establishes Kashmir’s Buddhist heritage that was long overshadowed by more familiar historical narratives.”

With additional excavation planned, researchers believe the site could significantly reshape understanding of Kashmir’s ancient past and its role in the transregional networks of early Buddhism.

Horrifically Disfigured Skeleton Known As “The Prince” Was Likely Mauled To Death By A Bear 27,000 Years Ago

The occupant of one of the most elaborate Paleolithic burials may have died in one of the most excruciating ways known to humans. Nicknamed “Il Principe” (“The Prince”), the teenage boy interred in the grave likely succumbed a few days after a large predator—probably a bear—maimed his face and chest.

Discovered in 1942 in the Arene Candide Cave in northern Italy, the burial dates to 27,900–27,300 years ago, during the Gravettian period of the Upper Paleolithic. Alongside the badly damaged skeleton, archaeologists found numerous luxurious grave goods, including hundreds of pierced shells, carved antlers, mammoth ivory pendants, and a flint blade, which may have symbolized prestige.

Once considered a sign of high social status, the grave earned the adolescent his royal nickname. However, his injuries—smashed collarbone, a large hole in his jaw, fractures to the skull, teeth, neck, and a punctured fibula—reveal a far more harrowing story. Researchers note that the trauma resembles patterns seen in modern car accidents but, in this prehistoric context, is more consistent with a large animal attack.

Alternative explanations, such as a fall or interpersonal violence, are unlikely, as the pattern of damage does not match those scenarios. The team suggests the injuries were probably inflicted by a brown bear, cave bear, leopard, or cave lion, with bears fitting the evidence most closely. Remarkably, the bones show early healing, indicating the boy survived two to three days after the attack, suggesting that major arteries were not severed. He likely died from organ failure, internal bleeding, or severe brain trauma.

The researchers propose that the extravagant grave goods may reflect a “ritual sanctioning” of the traumatic event rather than social rank. In other words, Il Principe may not have been of high status but was given an elaborate burial as part of a ritual response to his suffering. This theory aligns with patterns seen in other lavish Gravettian burials, which frequently involve individuals with unusual injuries or disfigurements.

“This pattern supports the hypothesis that formal burial was granted to ritually contain and acknowledge ‘exceptional events and exceptional people,’” the authors write.

An Ancient Portal to the Underworld Was Found in Denver

Looters stole this 2,700-year-old hell gate. Now, it’s back where it belongs.

Here’s what you’ll learn from this story:

Originally stolen in the early 20th century, a “portal to the underworld” depicting the Olmec jaguar god Tepeyollotlicuhti was returned to Mexico in May 2023. Because looters had broken the statue into multiple pieces, the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) spent a year restoring it to its original form.

The statue’s return followed decades of effort by archaeologists and officials combating antiquities trafficking. Sometime in the early 1900s, looters took a 2,700-year-old Olmec artifact—a six-by-five-foot Cave Mask, also called Portal al Inframundo, depicting Tepeyollotlicuhti with flaring eyes and a gaping mouth.

Originally from Chalcatzingo in Morelos, a region known for Olmec art and iconography, the stolen statue passed through various U.S. museums and private collections before reaching Denver in 2023. Authorities from New York City’s Antiquities Trafficking Unit eventually secured the artifact, and within months it was returned to Mexico.

“This remarkable, ancient piece offers a rare glimpse into Olmec society,” said New York District Attorney Alvin Bragg. “Like many looted antiquities, the Cave Mask was broken into several pieces to ease smuggling.”

According to INAH, the statue had been broken into 25 fragments. Restoration experts have been carefully working on it in situ to ensure structural stability and a coherent visual presentation.

Rare Roman-Era enamelled fibula found near Grudziądz

A rare enamelled fibula discovered near Grudziądz is being celebrated as only the second of its kind found in Poland.

The Grudziądz Fortress Association uncovered the artefact during a routine metal-detector survey. Association president Patryk Budziński recalled the moment the team realized they had found something extraordinary and promptly informed the Voivodeship Conservation Authority.

Earlier surveys in the area had revealed Roman ceramics, several fibulae, a cosmetic spoon, fragments of belt pendants, a spur, a hair ornament, a Teutonic coin, and a Scythian spearhead. This diverse collection indicates a multicultural settlement near the historic Amber Road, a major trade route linking the Baltic to the Roman world.

While the newly discovered brooch is still being studied, researchers are cautiously comparing it to a similar fibula found in a child’s grave at the barrow cemetery in Babi Dół-Borcz in the Somonino commune.

The site, studied from 1978 to 2015 by teams from Jagiellonian University and the University of Łódź, is linked to the Wielbark culture, associated with the arrival of Goths from Scandinavia in the early centuries AD.

The Babi Dół-Borcz fibula is a 3.3-centimetre circular disc with a central knob, decorated with alternating white and blue enamel and a red enamel ring at its centre. The Grudziądz fibula is very similar, though slightly larger and with 12 protrusions instead of eight.

Enamelled brooches like these were produced across the Roman provinces, especially in Gaul and Rhaetia, from the late first to mid-second century AD. Often worn by girls, they likely functioned as ornaments, toys, or protective amulets.

All artefacts have been secured, reported to the Provincial Conservation Office, and will eventually be displayed at the Museum in Bydgoszcz.

New Models Reveal If Neanderthals and Modern Humans Ever Met on the Iberian Peninsula During the Old Stone Age

Travel back about 100,000 years to Paleolithic Europe, and Neanderthals were building fires, making jewelry, and hunting mammoths.

Neanderthals dominated Europe for hundreds of thousands of years, but between roughly 50,000 and 38,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans began expanding into the region. Neanderthal populations then sharply declined, eventually becoming extinct.

A new study in PLOS One examines potential interactions between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens on the Iberian Peninsula during the Old Stone Age. Researchers built a human dispersal model to simulate encounters under different climatic conditions. “By linking climate, demography, and culture, our dynamic model offers a broader framework to interpret archaeological and genomic data,” said Gerd-Christian Weniger from the University of Cologne.

The Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition saw dramatic climate swings, with short warming periods, long cooling periods called Dansgaard-Oeschger events, and sudden cold snaps known as Heinrich events. Evidence shows modern humans and Neanderthals met and interbred in parts of Eurasia, contributing 1–4 percent of DNA in non-African populations. However, fossil evidence for interactions on the Iberian Peninsula is scarce.

To address this, researchers ran computer simulations testing scenarios for Neanderthal extinction. Lead author Yaping Shao explained that repeated simulations allowed assessment of early Neanderthal extinction, small populations at high risk, or prolonged survival that could enable mixing.

Most simulations suggested no contact occurred between Neanderthals and modern humans in Iberia. By the time modern humans arrived, Neanderthals were likely declining and confined to coastal refuges. The Heinrich Event 5 (~48,000 years ago) likely accelerated their extinction. Only about 1 percent of scenarios suggested limited interaction, producing a small population (2–6 percent) with mixed genes, probably in northwestern coastal areas like Cantabria, where modern humans may have arrived around 42,000 years ago.

The team plans to refine the model by adding factors such as prey availability, which could affect population stability and spread. They conclude that the approach offers a powerful alternative for studying human origins and dispersal, complementing traditional archaeological and genomic research.

Archaeologists Are Using Lasers to Clean Decades of Grime Off a Towering 1,800-Year-Old Marble Column in Rome

Standing 154 feet tall, the column of Marcus Aurelius is located in the Piazza Colonna and intricately decorated with gruesome scenes of warfare

Built between 180 and 193 C.E., the column depicts the battles of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, with more than 2,000 highly detailed figures spiraling around the shaft.

For decades, restorers have relied on small brushes and gentle tools to clean historic landmarks, but now some are turning to high-tech methods like lasers.

In Rome, conservators are using short-pulse lasers to clean the Column of Marcus Aurelius, a 154-foot-tall Carrara marble monument in the Piazza Colonna outside the prime minister’s residence. Built between 180 and 193 C.E., the column has been restored only a few times, most recently in the 1980s, and this project marks a new approach.

Working from scaffolding around the column, restorers use hand-held lasers to deliver concentrated bursts of heat, lifting decades of smog and grime from the marble. Traditional methods complement the lasers, including sponges, water, chemical wraps, and plaster applied with spatulas to repair gaps. The team also plans to refurbish the spiral staircase that leads to the top, providing panoramic views of the city. The entire project is expected to cost about $2.3 million, funded through European Union post-pandemic recovery loans and grants.

The column features a detailed spiral relief depicting Emperor Aurelius’ battles, with more than 2,000 figures—from soldiers and horses to gods and prisoners. The dramatic scenes include women being grabbed and enslaved, offering vivid insights into Roman life and warfare. Researchers note that the frieze provides almost photographic detail of the Roman army and society.

Aurelius appears multiple times along the column, which spirals 23 times. The original statue of Aurelius was replaced with St. Paul by Pope Sixtus V in 1589. Figures near the top are larger than those at the bottom, guiding viewers through the story scene by scene, according to restorer Valentin Nitu.

What Actually Is Fire? The Answer Is Stranger Than You'd Think

Fire is an ancient technology that has played a key role in human evolution. Early humans relied on it for protection, cooking, and food preservation. People gathered around fires to tell stories, share traditions, and strengthen social bonds.

In the modern world, fire remains a vital industrial tool and is still deeply embedded in everyday life and rituals, such as blowing out candles on a birthday cake.

Just as it did millions of years ago, fire continues to shape landscapes, with the ability to both destroy and renew entire ecosystems. Although fire is very familiar, it can be surprisingly difficult to define. So what exactly is fire?

Let’s start with a simpler question.

What are the components needed for fire?
To start a fire, three elements are required: fuel (a material that can burn), oxygen, and an initial source of heat or spark. This combination is known as the fire triangle. Fuel and oxygen can also be referred to as “reactants,” while the initial heat is called “activation energy.”

In the case of a bushfire, organic materials such as wood act as the fuel. Oxygen is present in the air, and the activation energy may come from sources like lightning or human activity.

If one of these elements is removed, the fire cannot continue burning. Bushfires can be extinguished by removing heat, such as by pouring water on the flames. The water turns into steam, which also helps smother the fire by pushing away oxygen. Fuel may be consumed by the fire itself or deliberately reduced beforehand through hazard-reduction or cultural burning practices.

Fire can be hard to define.

Fire is essentially a chemical reaction called combustion, not a form of matter. Its main products are energy, carbon dioxide, and water vapour, though incomplete burning—like in a bushfire—can also produce soot, tiny partially burned carbon particles. The warmth we feel comes from energy radiating as heat, while the hot gases rise, carrying glowing soot that forms the visible flames. Flames extend beyond what we see, emitting invisible light like infrared as they rise and cool.

Fire is not a solid, liquid, or gas. While flames consist of hot gases, they only exist while the fire is burning and cannot be contained like CO₂ or water. Fire is also not plasma, though the hottest parts of intense fires can contain weak, ionised regions. Plasma requires a stable soup of charged particles, which fire does not maintain.

What makes fire unique is that it is a process—a chemical reaction—rather than a physical substance. Visible, oxygen-fuelled flames like those on Earth are rare in the universe. Earth’s stable supply of oxygen, produced by life, is what makes fire possible here. As far as we know, fire in this form only exists on our planet.

3,000 BC find takes archaeologists by surprise

Near Lincoln, archaeologists have uncovered a 5,000-year-old axe head along with the remains of Roman buildings.

While excavating along the planned route of the North Hykeham Relief Road, the team discovered evidence of a previously unknown Roman dwelling near Bracebridge Heath.

Chris Clay of Allen Archaeologist Ltd, overseeing the project, said, “We expected this to be a Roman site, and that’s what we found, but there are also indications of much earlier activity dating back to around 3,000 BC.”

The excavation began in October 2025 and is scheduled to finish in early 2026, in an area set to be developed for the new £208m bypass.

Roman walls and a fragment of a Roman column have also been uncovered in several pits in a farmer’s field near the A607.

Mr. Clay said the team had found thousands of pieces of Roman pottery, along with dozens of personal items such as brooches, bracelets, and hairpins.

He added that the discoveries suggest the presence of Roman homes outside the city, “much like the large houses we see in affluent suburbs today.”

“We’re only a mile or two from Lincoln, one of the most important towns in Roman Britain, and the site offers amazing views over the Witham Valley. This could well have been a country residence for a wealthy, high-status Roman family,” he said.

Archaeologists believe the building remains are from a house belonging to a wealthy Roman family

One of the most remarkable discoveries at the site, he said, was a highly polished Neolithic stone axe head, still retaining its razor-sharp edge, dating back around 3,000 years before Roman Britain.

“This is a high-status object and wouldn’t have been used for chopping trees; it was far too valuable,” he explained.

“Perhaps the site served as a gathering place for communities during special events. It’s also very likely that the axe head was exchanged or traded as a prized item.”

A Roman hair pin made of bone is one of the many artefacts that have been uncovered

Ian George, from Lincolnshire County Council, said the Roman remains are providing new insights into life beyond the town.

“We know a lot about Roman Lincoln, but very little about the surrounding landscape and how people used it. This is helping to fill in that picture,” he explained.

He added that the survival of the axe head was “remarkable,” noting, “We know so little about Neolithic Lincolnshire.”

Construction of the road is expected to begin in early 2026. The artefacts will be given to Lincoln Museum, and the building remains will be covered by the new road after the evidence has been recorded, the council said.

Fort dig reveals glimpse into Roman daily life

Archaeologists are now three years into a five-year excavation at a Roman fort.

Earlier this year, the dig made headlines when eight unusually large shoes, each at least 30 cm (11.8 in) long—roughly a UK size 13–14—were uncovered at Magna Roman Fort in Northumberland. By comparison, only four or five shoes of this size have been found among the 5,000 discovered over 55 years at the nearby Vindolanda settlement in Hexham, according to Roman archaeology specialist Dr. Elizabeth Greene.

These oversized shoes were not the only significant finds of the year. One of the standout discoveries, according to archaeologist Rachel Frame, was a silver ring featuring a hare engraved on its gem.

“Archaeology isn’t always about the flashy finds,” she explained, “but then you have moments where you think, ‘wow, this is not something you see every day in your career.’

The team still do not know how old the inscribed ring is

Ms. Frame noted that after cleaning, the ring looked like something you could purchase in a jewelry store today and wear right away.

However, she added that it is still too soon to determine the ring’s precise history, as the team has yet to date the specific layers of soil where it was found.

“It’s one of the major research questions we’re looking to answer,” she said.

Hairpins are evidence that women spent time at the forts as well

Another discovery at the site included several hairpins crafted from animal bone.

Ms. Frame explained that these pins provide additional evidence that women and children also lived at Roman forts.

“Roman soldiers typically didn’t have long hair to style in elaborate ways,” she said.

“You can picture someone using a pin to secure their hair while working… it’s lovely to get these small insights into daily life.”

Roman soldiers may have used counters to gamble,

“I can tell this was a shoulder blade, but I don’t know why it’s full of holes,” she explained.

The team later determined that the bone had likely been used to make game counters.

“Romans used counters like this for different games and gambling,” she said.

Ms. Frame added that the person who made them was probably crafting them for themselves and their friends.

“It’s a small but fascinating glimpse into everyday life, rather than the usual image people have of Hadrian’s Wall,” she said.

Türkiye digs uncover ancient olive oil industry in Syedra

Archaeological digs at Syedra, an ancient city in Antalya’s Alanya district on Türkiye’s southern Mediterranean coast, have uncovered significant evidence of large-scale olive oil production, shedding light on the city’s economic importance in antiquity.

Excavations have identified over 100 olive oil workshops across the nearly 3,000-year-old settlement, suggesting that Syedra was a major production center rather than producing oil solely for local use. The work is part of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism’s “Heritage for the Future Project,” led by Associate Professor Ertuğ Ergürer of Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University.

Speaking to Anadolu Agency on Monday, Ergürer noted that the findings point to intensive production activity. “Through excavation, we have uncovered nearly 20 workshops and identified more than 100 throughout the city. This indicates that olive oil production in Syedra operated on a very large scale,” he said.

Syedra shows traces of Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Anatolian Seljuk periods and features a developed urban plan with structures such as a stadium, theater, baths, council building, water systems, cisterns, and colonnaded streets. Interestingly, olive oil workshops are often found within the city, frequently beneath residential buildings.

“This is unusual, as production facilities are typically outside city walls,” Ergürer explained. “Here, nearly every building has a workshop below it, showing how central olive oil production was to urban life in Syedra.”

In 2024, archaeologists uncovered a well-preserved olive oil workshop on the southwestern street of the city, with most architectural features and storage vessels remaining in their original positions. After documentation and conservation, the site was partially restored to illustrate ancient olive oil production methods to visitors.

Experts believe the city’s production exceeded local demand. According to Ergürer, olive oil was likely exported through nearby Mediterranean ports. “The number of workshops far surpasses what the local population would need, indicating production was intended for external markets,” he said.